Archaeological periods in the LANDshapes archive
|
| The Stone Ages, Palaeolithic - Neolithic |
Contributors to the LANDshapes archive will know that each contribution is assigned to a specific archaeological period, ranging from the Palaeolithic to modern day. The first three periods are the stone ages known as the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic - or old Stone Age, middle Stone Age and new Stone Age respectively - the Stone Ages are characterised by the stone, bone and antler tools associated with the era.
These periods are marked by the emergence of new technologies and cultural changes than by any specific dates and, in the case of the Palaeolithic, are usually divided into three subdivisions; Lower, Middle and Upper.
This category is likely to have the least amount of contributions in the archive due to the rarity of artefacts. Generally speaking, only the more robust items of man’s material culture survive long enough to be noted in the archaeological record. |
| Lower Palaeolithic |
This earliest part of the Palaeolithic began around 120,000 years ago and continued until approximately 2.5 million years ago when the stone tools that were made by Homo habilis first began to appear in the archaeological record. The prevalent hominid species were Homo habilis and Homo erectus.
The lower Palaeolithic is characterised by its hand axe industries and some of the earliest stone tools were discovered at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, Africa. These assemblages were comprised primarily of pebble tools, chopping tools and hand axes. As primitive as these tools may seem to us, it is important to remember that during this period of man’s history they were literally cutting edge technology. The materials for these tools had to be carefully chosen and then painstakingly shaped. Even using modern methods it is very difficult to recreate a Palaeolithic tool.
There are no structured camp sites or settlements recorded for this time and it is generally accepted that our ancestors lived as nomadic hunter gatherers. Through analysis of coprolites (fossilised human faeces) we do know that these ancestors had extensive knowledge of plants and appear to have eaten, what we would consider, a very healthy diet.
To see an example of a lower Palaeolithic hand axe please see the Palaeolithic Hand Axe contribution in the archive. |
| Middle Palaeolithic |
Very broadly, this period is dated to between 300,000 and 30,000 years ago but there are considerable dating differences between various regions.
The middle palaeolithic saw the emergence of the Neanderthals (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis) and, later, modern humans. The manufacture of stone tools became more sophisticated and composite tools, for example a stone axe head attached to a wooden shaft, are in evidence, but the use of wood spears was still prevalent.
Hunting and gathering is thought to have been the primary source of food procurement but it is likely that people were also eating shell fish and drying and smoking meat to preserve it – evidence from some sites suggests that plant resources could have been managed by selectively burning off some areas.
Rock art appears for the first time and there is evidence of funerary rituals. A ‘figurine’ which was discovered on the Golan Heights and which is dated to at least 230,000 years ago, showed definite cut marks that had been made by a flint tool. The cut marks are primarily around the neck and arms, giving them greater definition. The figurine, known as the Berekhat Ram pebble, is a piece of volcanic tuff of approx. 1 inch in length and is naturally of a similar shape to the Venus figurines of the Upper Palaeolithic.
Modern humans begin to migrate out of Africa towards the end of this period. |
| Upper Palaeolithic |
The shift from middle to upper Palaeolithic is sometimes referred to as the upper Palaeolithic revolution; regionally distinctive cultures and new technologies begin to emerge and more efficient hunting methods were employed.
During this period we find evidence of organised settlements in the form of campsites, some of which also had storage pits. It is possible that some of these campsites were occupied year-round but more likely that they were only in use seasonally with people moving between camps, exploiting different food sources at different times of the year.
The development of tools advanced significantly in this period and more refined tools were produced through more advanced methods. Flint, stone, bone, horn, ivory and obsidian artefacts have been excavated from upper Palaeolithic sites.
Neanderthals disappear and are replaced by a variety of Homo species including Cro-Magnon man whose remains, which are anatomically identical to modern humans, were first discovered in 1868 in Les Eyzies, Dordogne, France.
So-called ‘Venus figurines’ (an umbrella term for a number of prehistoric items, mostly in the form of statuettes, which depict large, heavily pregnant or fertile women) make an appearance in the archaeological record and are amongst the oldest ceramics yet discovered.
From this period we see a large amount of cave and rock art appearing across Europe. Some of the more notable sites include Altamira in Spain and Lascaux in France. At both sites the paintings have been attributed to Cro-Magnon man and at Lascaux alone at least thirteen different styles of painting have been identified.
Only a few examples of Palaeolithic art have survived the damp climate of the British Isles but an engraving of two birds can be found in a cave at Cresswell Crags in Derbyshire. |
| Mesolithic |
The Mesolithic is the middle stone age and is sometimes referred to as the Epipalaeolithic, especially in areas which saw little glacial impact. This era began around 10,000 years ago and ended with the introduction of farming around six and a half thousand years ago. Farming began at various dates in various regions so there is no single date for its beginnings. For example, in Northern Europe as the glaciers receded they left fertile marshlands which provided rich supplies of food and warmer climates. This impacted on human behaviour and is relatively well documented in the archaeological record. Sea levels in N. Europe did not reach current levels until around 6,000 years ago and in many parts of this area the Mesolithic lasted much longer than in areas of Southern Europe for example.
Remains from this period often come from middens; rubbish heaps which increase in size over time. Mesolithic cultures used a wide variety of hunting, fishing and food gathering techniques and this is represented by the many various types of tools that would have comprised a Mesolithic tool kit.
Tools dated to this period include stone scrapers - used to remove animal hides or strip bark, choppers and axes - larger, more robust tools that were hand-held or sometimes attached to a wooden shaft, blades - of flint or stone that have very sharp single or double cutting edges and were used to cut hide and flesh, burins - sharpened, pointed tools that were used to mark or score wood, bone and hide, and cores - larger pieces of stone from which other tools were made.
To see a collection of Mesolithic flints please see the Mesolithic Hunting Station contribution in the archive. |
| Neolithic |
The Neolithic is the ‘New stone age’ and was identified as such by Sir John Lubbock in 1865 as a refinement of the three-age system, as previously described.
It is during this period that we see the beginnings of farming practices which included the use of both wild and domesticated crop species, and sheep and goats.
After approximately 7000BC cattle and pigs become domesticated, permanent and semi-permanent settlements and the use of pottery are in evidence from the archaeological record. It is, however, unclear which plants were domesticated in Britain during the earliest part of the Neolithic or even whether there were any permanent settlements at that time.
Skara Brae in Scotland has excellent examples of Neolithic dwellings.
It is generally believed that food-producing communities first emerged in the Levant at the end of the ice age, and that by the end of the eighth millennium BC these societies had developed into a number of regionally-distinct cultures.
There is relatively little evidence for developed hierarchies during this period, and it is believed that many households and families were still economically independent.
Causewayed enclosures, burial mounds and henges appear in the later Neolithic, and there is strong evidence for fortified settlement sites along the Rhine.
The world’s oldest, man-made roadway, the Sweet Track, dates to the Neolithic. |
|
|
|
