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Technology |
Landscape |
Society |
4500 BC - AD 43 |
Current evidence suggests that sedentary farming activities first occurred during this period in the British Isles. Woodland clearances were created to make way for crop plants such as wheat and barley which may have been brought from the Middle East. Bones discovered on archaeological sites from animals such as cattle suggest that
wild animals started to be domesticated at this time. There is also significant evidence for an increase in the production and trade of flint and other stone tools throughout this period. |
Pollen analysis (palynology) suggests that the native woodland which covered much of Britain at the beginning of this period was slowly cleared. Probably through slash and burn techniques. By
2000 BC current evidence suggests that the tree cover is down to about 40%. Permanent tracks, such as the famous Glastonbury Sweet Track, appear at this time. There is some evidence to suggest that similar tracks existed in the Trent Valley Washlands. |
Population estimates for this era vary between 30,000 and 500,000 individuals. Permanent settlements appear in the landscape for the first time and significant monumentalisation of the landscape occurs. For example the large henge monuments, such as Stonehenge on Salisbury Plain, are built. Important changes in burial practices also occur during this time. |
43 BC - AD410 |
The Romans brought new crops such as cabbage carrot, parsnip, walnuts and vines as well as improved ploughs, scythes, new storage techniques and a more organised farming regime. The Romans were also responsible for major changes in construction techniques such as the building of 'permanent' paved roads and more large scale mineral extraction industries as well as the famous villas bath houses. |
The Romans introduced new plants and animals into the British landscape such as nettles,rabbits and snails. Palynological evidence suggests that woodland cover is stable at 10% during this period. Hedges, fences, ditches, roads and towns become features of the landscape. |
UK population was at around four million during this period. Large villas and adjoining estates were established. The expansion of settlements into towns which were administrative centres also occurred at this time. For instance Colchester (Camulodunum) and York (Eboracum). Many people were un free and much of the economy was based on the widespread use of slave labour. Some evidence suggests that there were also major changes that redefined gender roles in society. Women were generally accorded far less freedom to make decisions and own land etc. |
AD 410 - AD 1485 |
In the medieval period sheep farming became a very important part of the economy. England in particular became an important international wool and cloth exporter. Consequently there was a marked increase in accompanying technology such as fulling mills and weaving sheds. Glass making and metal work were also important widespread industries at this time. Arable farming was based around a system of crop rotation which included leaving land to lie fallow. |
Woodland cover remained at about 10% but there were changes in who could access the forest resources. Hunting parks such as that in Needwood were established for the use of the upper classes. Trees were heavily managed through pollarding and coppicing. The field system was based on large pieces of open land divided into strips. These were ploughed by oxen and later by horse teams, leaving a characteristic pattern called ridge and furrow, remnants of which can still be seen today. Large, stone built castles, cathedrals and monastic establishments dominated much of the landscape. Most other buildings were wattle and daub, timber framed structures with thatched roofs. |
During the early medieval period from 410AD - 1066AD there appears top have been a population decline. This stabilised in the 11th and early 12th centuries, until the dramatic fall caused by the black death in 1345 - 49. After which there were around 2 million people. Most land was owned by royalty, the church and a handful of barons. Much of the economy was still based on the use of slave labour. These un free members of society were often called serfs or bondsmen. Due to the scarcity of people after the black death this began to change and labour was based more on free wage earners. |
AD 1485 - AD 1750 |
The later medieval and early post-medieval periods saw the slow beginnings of the industrial revolution. There were many innovations in machinery. By 1750 tools such as Jethro Tull’s seed drill, Richard Arkwright's spinning jenny and framework knitting machines had transformed the way that many people worked. New ideas about crop rotations such as the Norfolk four course method also began at this time. |
Agricultural land was often enclosed into single fields, during the 18th century. Hawthorn was the most usual species used for the 200,000 miles of hedges that were established at this time. Many of these can still be seen in the landscape today. A lot of the medieval woodland was chopped down during this time, especially during and after the Civil War. Turnpike roads began to be introduced, often with accompanying buildings, many of which have survived into the 21st century. |
By 1750 the population had grown to about nine million. The majority were still employed in agriculture but people started to move to the towns in significant numbers to work in industry. There were great changes in society during this period, which saw the reformation and the rise of the puritan faith. |
AD 1750 - AD 1850 |
The speed of technological change continued to increase throughout the latter half of the eighteenth and into the early half of the nineteenth centuries. An example of this was the introduction of mass -produced puddled irons. Made in a coal-fired furnace, remote from the fire itself. Puddled iron is the typical engineering material of the nineteenth century. At this time agriculture became more regionalised. Horse drawn reaping and threshing machines were introduced. |
The increase in output from the industrial sector saw the construction of more specialist structures such as mills, pumping stations and canals. As the wool industry declined there was an increase in arable agriculture. New species of trees and shrubs were introduced from the far flung corners of the expanding empire. |
This period saw a growth in non-conformist Christian religions such as the Methodist movement. The population reached around 21 million. Due to changes in technology, agriculture was more productive and less labour intensive, only about 22% of the population were employed on the land. Urban and industrial communities were growing fast, and people faced life threatening dangers such as the perils of the mines and furnaces and the epidemics of congested districts lacking sewerage and clean water. This era also saw the abolition of slavery. |
AD 1850 - AD 1900 |
The steam power inventions of the mid nineteenth century were improved upon and gave rise to many technological advances such as steam ploughs, threshing equipment and public transport systems such as the railway. The end of this period saw the introduction of the internal combustion engine and the camera. |
The expansion of the railways have a dramatic impact on the landscape, opening up the country to more people. Agricultural depression left many farms derelict, and contributed to the decline of many landed estates. Non native species such as the grey squirrel continue to be introduced into the British landscape. |
By the end of this period the population of Britain had increased to 50 million.The average diet become more varied and improved nutrition had increased life expectancy to an average age of 50 by 1900. The period saw the rise of the middle classes, and in 1867 the Reform Act saw the male head of every household given the right to vote. However, women's suffrage was still some way off. Darwin's 'Origin of species' was published in 1859 causing social division. |
AD 1900 - AD1950 |
The first and second world wars were catalysts for great technological advances. Radio, telephones, and air travel were all developed and became popular during this period and the internal combustion engine rose to prominence. The growth of the chemical industry saw the development of chemical fertilisers, weed killers and plastics. Diesel powered tractors and harvesters largely replaced men and horses. And of course, this period also saw the detonation of the first atomic bomb at Hiroshima. |
Rampant urbanization began during this period. The character of the landscape began to be altered by the construction of roads and the destruction of hedges. Old fashioned mixed farming started to fall into decline and increased mechanisation meant that larger fields were considered more economical. The mass bombing that occurred during the second world war led to the construction of many structures created using modern materials such as prefabricated concrete and corrugated iron. |
Important social changes such as national insurance, the national health service and the legalisation of the trade union movement happened during this period as did women's suffrage. And in 1944 the Education act established the principle of free education for all children. By 1950 the population had risen to 55 million.
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AD 1950 - AD 2000 |
The speed of technological advance increased dramatically. Mains electricity and home telephones became the norm. This period saw the rise of television and other multi media technology including mobile phones, home computers and the internet. The arms race and the space race, both of which gave rise to new technologies, took place during this time. We also see new chemical and biological technology such as GM. |
The elm decline of the 1970s had a dramatic impact on the visual landscape of lowland England. Yellow flowered oil seed rape became common in the landscape, although contrary to popular belief it was not a new crop at this time, and had enjoyed an earlier period of widespread popularity in the eighteenth century. There was a massive boom in the construction industry with many new towns such as Milton Keynes being built. The demise of heavy industry saw the closure of the pits and an increase in brown-field sites. |
The early part of this period saw a significant population migration from town to country which declined, and to some extent reversed by the end of the period. The population of Britain reached 57 million and an area of countryside equivalent to five times the size of Cambridge was lost every year to new roads and buildings. Life expectancy reached an all-time high of 80 years. Interest in organic produce and alternative healthcare increased. Consumers expressed concerns about new technology such as GM. By the end of this period only 3% of the population were working on the land. |
